Turkey in images

Geography

Turkey is at the northeast end of the Mediterranean Sea in southeast Europe and southwest Asia. To the north is the Black Sea and to the west is the Aegean Sea. Its neighbors are Greece and Bulgaria to the west, Russia, Ukraine, and Romania to the north and northwest (through the Black Sea), Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran to the east, and Syria and Iraq to the south. The Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, and the Bosporus divide the country. Turkey in Europe comprises an area about equal to the state of Massachusetts. Turkey in Asia is about the size of Texas. Its center is a treeless plateau rimmed by mountains. 

History

Anatolia (Turkey in Asia) was occupied in about 1900 B.C. by the Indo-European Hittites and, after the Hittite empire's collapse in 1200 B.C. , by Phrygians and Lydians. The Persian Empire occupied the area in the 6th century B.C. , giving way to the Roman Empire, then later the Byzantine Empire. The Ottoman Turks first appeared in the early 13th century, subjugating Turkish and Mongol bands pressing against the eastern borders of Byzantium and making the Christian Balkan states their vassals. They gradually spread through the Near East and Balkans, capturing Constantinople in 1453 and storming the gates of Vienna two centuries later. At its height, the Ottoman Empire stretched from the Persian Gulf to western Algeria. Lasting for 600 years, the Ottoman Empire was not only one of the most powerful empires in the history of the Mediterranean region, but it generated a great cultural outpouring of Islamic art, architecture, and literature.

After the reign of Sultan Süleyman I the Magnificent (1494–1566), the Ottoman Empire began to decline politically, administratively, and economically. By the 18th century, Russia was seeking to establish itself as the protector of Christians in Turkey's Balkan territories. Russian ambitions were checked by Britain and France in the Crimean War (1854–1856), but the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) gave Bulgaria virtual independence and Romania and Serbia liberation from their nominal allegiance to the sultan. Turkish weakness stimulated a revolt of young liberals known as the Young Turks in 1909. They forced Sultan Abdul Hamid to grant a constitution and install a liberal government. However, reforms were no barrier to further defeats in a war with Italy (1911–1912) and the Balkan Wars (1912–1913). Turkey sided with Germany in World War I, and, as a result, lost territory at the conclusion of the war.

Cities of Turkey

ISTANBUL

Istanbul historically Byzantium and Constantinople; is the largest city in Turkey, largest city proper and second largest metropolitan area in Europe, and fourth largest city proper in the world with a population of 12.6 million. Istanbul is also a mega city, as well as the cultural and financial center of turkey. The city covers 27 districts of the Istanbul province. It is located on the Bosporus strait and encompasses the natural harbor known as the golden horn, in the northwest of the country. It extends both on the European (Thrace) and on the Asian (Anatolia) sides of the Bosporus, and is thereby the only metropolis in the world that is situated on two continents.

In its long history, Istanbul has served as the capital city of the Roman Empire (330–395), the (Byzantine) East Roman Empire (395–1204 and 1261–1453), the Latin Empire (1204–1261), and the Ottoman Empire (1453–1922). The city was chosen as joint European Capital of culture for 2010. The historic areas of Istanbul were added to the UNESCO world heritage list in 1985.

Istanbul is an old city; you can see the remains of many ancient civilizations and their culture in harmony with Turkish culture. The old versus the new, the traditional versus the modern is a conflict a visitor often observes. The city is full of contrasts, and colorful views.

ANKARA

Very familiar to most people as the capital of Turkey, Ankara is actually only the country's second-biggest city, being considerably smaller than Istanbul. However, Ankara is actually a very large and presentable Turkish city, constantly expanding and offering a rather sophisticated and modern character. Many wide streets are now lined with coffee shops and eateries, particularly around the energetic Kizilay area.

Various tourist hotspots present themselves around the city of Ankara and in particular, along the Ataturk Bulvari, which serves as a prominent artery. The Ulus Meydani, known simply as 'Ulus', is another important tourism hub in the city and this central square is close to a number of leading museums, while also offering a choice of accommodation and inexpensive restaurants. Nearby, the Ankara Tourist Information Office is easy to find and stands directly opposite the Maltepe Akaray Train Station, on the Gazi Mustafa Kemal Bulvari.

Although Ankara is somewhat overshadowed by the enormous Turkish city of Istanbul, but really does compete well in the way of quality tourist attractions. The city's Citadel walls are positively ancient and comprise a mixture of different architectural styles through the ages. Also of a great age and much visited are the Roman Baths of Ankara, which remain is a good state of repair, considering that they are more than 1,700 years old. The Ataturk Mausoleum is yet another major sight, while for families, the attractions within the Ataturk Forest Farm and Zoo and Aquapark Club Watercity comes highly recommended.

ANTALYA Antalya (formerly known as Adalia; from Pamphylian Greek: Αττ?λεια Attália) is a large town and tourist destination, situated on the Mediterranean coast of southwestern Turkey. It is the capital city of Antalya Province. The population of the city is 603,190 (2000 census) but reaches up to two million in summers at the height of tourism season. Situated on a steep cliff over the Mediterranean, Antalya is a picturesque city surrounded by mountains. Developments in tourism, starting in the 1970s, have transformed the city into an international resort. With its airport and central location, Antalya is "the capital of Turkish tourism", a gateway for the Turkish riviera and many historical sites. Furthermore, with its palm-lined boulevards, its prize-winning marina, the unspoilt historical neighbourhood of Kaleiçi, and the modern developments along the coast, the city of Antalya is a major attraction in its own right. Antalya and its surroundings are a very important part of Turkish tourism.

Antalya city corresponds to the lands of ancient Pamphylia to the east and Lycia to the west. Antalya has plenty of accommodation, a very hot climate and many places to visit both in and around the city, including traces of Lycian,Pamphylian, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Seljuk and Ottoman architecture and cultures.

 

The city as a whole has grown huge now and the infrastructure such as roads and drains are struggling to catch up, but there are still areas that are very attractive indeed: Kaleiçi, with its narrow cobbled streets of historic Turkish and Greek houses is the old center of Antalya, now mainly hotels, gift shops, and many, many bars. The big new hotels such as the Sheraton are along the coast above the Konyaalti and Lara beaches, and indeed spread along the coast in both directions far beyond the city of Antalya itself.

  

KUSADASI

Early settlements in Kusadasi were by the Lelegians and Carians who moved from the central Anatolia around the year 3000BC. They established of a colony on the outskirts of Pilav Mountain in Kusadasi, and founded the cities Ania and Melia. Mild climate allowed the inhabitants to grow essential products such as olive, grape and figs for extracting oil or making wine and sweets on the fertile lands around the city.

In the 10th century BC "12 Ionian Cities "-Samos, Khios, Miletos, Priene, Ephesus, Teos, Erythrai, Priena, Klazonemi, Lebedos, Phokaia, Colophon, Smyrna, were established and were known for the most developed cities of the age. The annual meeting place of the Ionian League, Panionian, was founded around Kusadasi; and the cities of Phygale, Marathesion and Neopolis were established within the borders of the city. 

Kusadasi was ruled by the Ottoman Empire after the invasion of Sultan Mehmet Celebi in the year 1413. During the reign of Ottomans, glorious new structures were built in Kusadasi Okuz Mehmet Pasa Caravanserai is the principal legacy of the Ottoman architecture in the city, and was built by the man of the same name, who was the vizier during the reigns of Sultan Ahmet1 and Osman2. The fortress is gates and walls and many mosques in the centre of Kusadasi, as well as the citadel of the castle in Pigeon Island, were built in the Ottoman period, reflecting the architectural style of the era. "Kusadasi " that means "bird island" and took its name from Pigeon Island.

Today, Kusadasi is one of Turkey's most sophisticated holiday centres; it is a perfect place for vacation with its sandy beaches and glassy water. The contrast between the lively holiday life and the quietness of the ancient ruins create the special atmosphere of the city.

"Habibi boy" type or "My Granny habebty" :)))))))))))))

When a man is old enough to do something wrong, he is old enough to do something right.

In the last years I heard about a lot of new cases of intimate destruction between old foreign women from USA, Europe, Asia, Australia and Arabian men. 

The number of women attempting to form, what they believe as a long term relationship, with men young enough to be their son or even grandson is increasing. 

The majority of these women are quite intelligent which makes their behavior more baffling, statistically more than 75% of these cross cultural relationships or pseudo marriages end in divorce or abandonment,

When a dark eyed 22 year old man holds you in his arms and whispers he wants to grow old with you, try to remember you are already approaching 45, 55, 65,  and that you are biologically, organically and every other ally one could describe, you are already old. Doesn’t take a genius to work out when you are 80 this guy will still be so young, you’ll be using him as a Zimmer frame.

It seems middle to old age foreign women are acquiring the label ‘sex tourist". Unlike most European or American and Asian holiday destinations, sex outside of marriage is not accepted in Arabic countries.
However in the side alleys and back rooms of certain Lawyers in the Arabian countries you will find the ‘live in sin license.’ The ‘Urfi’ is a piece of paper, a formal contract of intent to marry. It is being used by growing numbers of young Egyptian gigolos simply as a way of getting around religious strictures against having pre-marital sex.

For the older post menopausal, sexually active blinkered woman the Urfi is simply a piece of paper which allows her to bring her young gigolo into her home.

Most Arabian guys have a high sense of honour and behave in an appropriate way towards members of the opposite sex.

However tourist areas attract a certain type of predator, the ‘Habibi Boy’
The ‘Habibi Boy’ is only in love with money or the determination to get a visa to a destination where he is simple enough to believe the streets are paved with foreign gold.
Any elderly lady who is conned into thinking the ‘Habibi Boy’ is really in love with her needs her head tested.
Remove your clothes lady, stand in front of a full length mirror and tell me, does your body compare in any shape or form to a 25 year old woman?
Then ask yourself this question: “What normal young man would actually want to sleep with his Granny?

You might have gone to great lengths to explain to this ignorant juvenile the meaning of the female reproductive system, you no longer have the ability to provide him with offspring. You might even take the softly, softly approach because you are too embarrassed to say ‘my reproductive organs have shriveled up to the size of raisins.’
‘Habibi Boy’ will swear he doesn’t care, he doesn’t want children he only wants you. You are his life, his soul and two thousand other descriptions he can fabricate from the romantic songs of Amr Diab.

So an year down the road, why is it he disappears to his hometown or in the village he came out from after convincing you to invest in a little business, one which his brother can run for you both? The little business  usually involves Shaorma.

Your financial investment is used for a big slap-up village wedding with a young bride his family have chosen for him; nine months later he becomes a ‘daddy Habibi Boy.’ You are crushed, your whole world has fallen apart, you remind him of all the beautiful lies he has told you. He insists everything he said was true. He swears he didn’t want to marry the young, beautiful bride but his father insisted and he must obey his father.
He also tells you nothing will change and in his head he believes this. The only difficulty in this equation now is your funds are getting less and you will have two more members of a family you didn’t subscribe too.

Of course you do have a choice, accept the situation where your little love nest becomes the little half way house, or kick him out.

Unfortunately many women are accepting this situation for some unknown psychological reason known only to them.

Their lives are miserable, confused, always checking ‘Habibi Boy’s texts and Facebook page.
These women are under the illusion that the power exerted over them by these juvenile delinquents is because he loves them so much!
This isn’t love, this is ‘control’ you are his meal ticket or maybe his future status of emigrant relies solely upon you.

“I love you, I love you, I want to grow old with you, you are my sun, moon and stars!”  Think of how the two you would look walking arm in arm down the high street in Wigan? Think of the derision you would suffer from friends, family and strangers and get a grip.
Don’t anyone tell me ‘MMD.’ (My Mohammed is different)! If he is so different why do you carry your purse in a holster strapped under your arm?

He might look like Captain Charisma, but believe me under that handsome exterior is a Neo Fascist.
Once he has your money, bye bye love, once he has sped off with the car you just happened to put in his name because he conned you into believing it would be much easier to register. Once his name is on the deeds of your apartment he will disappear, you might even be lucky enough to get a text from him which says “Good bye you old bag,”

Delusions are sometimes romantically linked with adolescence, after that we stop trusting like a child and think like an adult.
Love and friendship is not painted in broad strokes.
Relationships are not time-shares, functioning is not enough, your happiness comes from within you, you don’t need anyone else to complete it.
There are many cross cultural marriages that work, however these unions did not meet in the artificial holiday environment of exotic Arabian resorts.

Before you dive into the murky waters of a relationship with a young ‘Habibi Boy’ look on the internet and see if his name has been put on one of the many Blacklists.

REMEMBER THESE WORDS:

The man who asks  a woman for money is not a man.

The Paradise was born on Earth: Mauritius island

Geography

Mauritius is an island nation off the coast of the African continent in the southwest Indian Ocean, about 900 kilometres east of Madagascar. In addition to the island of Mauritius, the Republic includes the islands of St. Brandon, Rodrigues and the Agalega Islands.

Mauritius is part of the Mascarene Islands, with the French island of Réunion 200 km to the southwest and the island of Rodrigues 570 km to the northeast. This archipelago was formed in a series of undersea volcanic eruptions, as the African plate drifted over the Réunion hotspot. They are no longer volcanically active, and the hotspot now rests under Réunion. The island of Mauritius itself is formed around a central plateau, with its highest peak in the southwest, Piton de la Petite Rivière Noire at 828 metres. Around the plateau, the original crater can still be distinguished from several mountains.

The island's capital and largest city is Port Louis, in the northwest. Other important towns are Curepipe, Vacoas, Phoenix, Quatre Bornes, Rose-Hill and Beau-Bassin.

Climate

Mauritius has a tropical maritime climate, with relatively little seasonal variation in temperatures, and generally pleasant and sunny on the coast year round. Winter from May to October is warm and dry. Summer from November to April is hot, humid and rainy. Cyclones occur between January and March. Sea breezes blow all year, especially on the east coast, and the inland central plateau around Curepipe is cooler and rainy year round.

The temperature on the coastal areas varies between 22°C in winter and 34°C in summer. The sea temperature varies between 22°C and 27°C. In the central part of the island, the maximum daytime temperature varies from about 19°C in August to about 26°C in February. The western and northern regions are warmer and relatively drier than the East and the South.

Fauna & Flora
 

The island is well known for its natural beauty. 

Mauritius boasts a huge range of sea treasures and infinite wealth. The Mauritian sea never fails to surprise: multi-coloured fish, moray eels, magnificent coral beds.
Skin-diving masks, flippers and scuba diving equipment. Enjoy one of the happiest experiences in the world! Whether you are in a diving suit or in a submarine, Mauritius can introduce you to the secrets of its submarine world.

One of the most spectacular ways to explore the ocean beds is to go on board the Blue Safari submarine. You will enjoy a superb encounter with the marine life and get a chance to see various wrecks dating back to the 17th century. Night diving, «honeymoon» diving and training sessions are available.

The flora of Mauritius is composed of 700 species of indigenous plants. Many of these plants are threatened with extinction. This is because there is less than 2% of their natural habitat left, and because introduced plants and animals compete and destroy thein fruits and seedlings.

History of Mauritius

Discovery
 

It has been frequently hypothesized that Mauritius was first discovered by the Arabs but this is without proof. The first historical evidence of the existence of an island which we now know as Mauritius, is on a map produced by the Italian cartographer Alberto Cantino in 1502. Cantino shows three islands which are thought to represent the Mascarenes (Reunion, Mauritius and Rodrigues) and calls them diba margabin, dina aroby and dina morare. What is known is that the mediaeval Arab world called the Indian Ocean island region, Waqwaq.

Portuguese sailors (1507–1513)
Mauritius was discovered and visited by the Portuguese between 1507 and 1513.

An official world map by Diogo Ribeiro described “from west to east, the first island, ‘’Mascarenhas’’, the second, ‘’Santa Apolonia’’ and the third, ‘’Domingo Froiz’’. The three islands (Réunion, Mauritius and Rodrigues) were discovered some years earlier by chance during an exploratory expedition of the coast of the Golf of Bengal lead by Tristão da Cunha. The expedition ran into a cyclone and was forced to modify course. Thus, the ship ‘’Cirne’’ of the captain Diogo Fernandes Pereira, came into view of Réunion island on 9 February 1507. They called the island ‘’Santa Apolonia’’ in honor of that day’s saint. Mauritius was discovered during the same expedition and received the name of ‘’Cirne’’ and Rodrigues that of ‘’Diogo Fernandes’’. Five years later, the islands were visited by Dom Pedro de Mascarenhas who left the name ‘’Mascarene’’ for the whole region. The Portuguese took no interest in these isolated islands. They were already implanted in Asia in Goa, on the coast of Malabar, on the island of Ceylon (now Sri-Lanka) and on the Malaysian coast where their main establishments were located.

Their main African base was in Mozambique, therefore the Portuguese navigators preferred to use the Mozambican canal to go to India. The Comoros at the north proved to be a more practical port of call. Thus no permanent colony was established on the island by the Portuguese.

In 1598, a Dutch expedition consisting of eight ships set sail from the port of Texel (Netherlands) under the orders of admirals Jacques Cornelius Van Neck and Wybrandt Van Warwyck towards the Indian subcontinent. The eight ships ran into foul weather after passing the Cape of Good Hope and were separated. Three found their way to the northeast of Madagascar whereas the remaining five regrouped and sailed in a southeasterly direction. On 17 September, the five ships under the orders of Admiral Van Warwyck came into view of the island. On 20 September, they entered a sheltered bay which they gave the name of ‘’Port de Warwick’’ (present name is “Grand Port”). They landed and decided to name the island "Prins Maurits van Nassaueiland", after Prince Maurits (Latin version: Mauritius) of the House of Nassau, the stadtholder of Holland, but from those days, only the name Mauritius has remained. On 2 October, the ships took to the sea again towards Bantam.

From then on, the island’s ’’Port de Warwick’’ was used by the Dutch as a stopover after long months at sea. In 1606, two expeditions came for the first time to what would later become Port-Louis in the northwest part of the island. The expedition, consisting of eleven ships and 1,357 men under the orders of Admiral Corneille came into the bay, which they named “Rade des Tortues” (literally meaning Harbor of the Tortoises) because of the great number of terrestrial tortoises they found there.

From that date, Dutch sailors shifted their choice to “Rade des Tortues” as harbor. In 1615, the shipwrecking and death of governor Pieter Both, who was coming back from India with four richly laden ships in the bay, caused the route to be considered as cursed by Dutch sailors and they tried to avoid it as much as possible. In the meantime, the British and the Danes were beginning to make incursions into the Indian Ocean. Those who landed on the island freely cut and took with them the precious bark of the Ebony trees, then found in profusion all over the island.

Dutch colonization (1638–1710)
 

Dutch colonization started in 1638 and ended in 1710, with a brief interruption between 1658 and 1666. Numerous governors were appointed at the head of the island during which it was inhabited, but the continuous hardships like cyclones, droughts, pest infestations, lack of food and illnesses finally took their toll and the island was abandoned definitely in 1710.

The island was not permanently inhabited for the forty years since discovery by the Dutch, but in 1638 Cornelius Gooyer established the first permanent Dutch settlement in Mauritius with a garrison consisting of twenty-five persons. He thus became the first governor of the island. In 1639, thirty more men came to reinforce the Dutch colony. Gooyer was instructed to develop the commercial potential of the island, but he did nothing of the sort, so he was recalled. His successor was Adriann van der Stel who began the development in earnest, developing the export of Ebony bark. For the purpose, Van der Stel bought 105 Malagasy slaves to the island. Within the first week, about sixty slaves were able to run away into the forests and about only twenty of them were eventually recaptured.

In 1644, the islanders were faced with many months of hardships, due to delayed shipment of supplies, bad harvests and cyclones. During those months, the colonists could only rely on themselves by fishing and hunting. Nonetheless, Van der Stel secured the shipment of 95 more slaves from Madagascar, before being transferred to Ceylon. His replacement was Jacob van der Meersh. In 1645, the latter brought in 108 more Malagasy slaves. Van der Meersh left Mauritius in September 1648 and was replaced by Reinier Por.

In 1652, more hardships befell on the colonists, masters and slaves alike. The population was then of about a hundred people. The continuing hardships affected the commercial potential island and a pullout was ordered in 1657. On 16 July 1658, almost all the inhabitants left the island, except for a ship’s boy and two slaves who had taken shelter in the forests. Thus the first attempt at colonization by the Dutch ended badly.

In 1664, a second attempt was made, but this one also ended badly as the men chosen for the job abandoned their sick commander, Van Niewland, without proper treatment and the latter eventually died.
 

From 1666 to 1669, Dirk Jansz Smient administered the new colony at Grand Port, with the cutting down and export of Ebony trees as the main activity. When Dirk Jansz Smient left, he was replaced by George Frederik Wreeden. The latter died in 1672, drowned with five other colonists during a reconnaissance expedition. His replacement would be Hubert Hugo. The later was a man of vision and wanted to make the island into an agricultural colony. His vision was not shared by his superiors and eventually could not fully develop his vision.

Issac Johannes Lamotius became the new governor when Hugo left in 1677. Lamotius governed until 1692, when he was deported to Batavia for judgment for persecuting a colonist whose wife had refused his courtship. Thus in 1692 a new governor, Roelof Deodati, was appointed. Even if he tried to develop the island, Deodati faced many problems, like cyclones, pest infestations, cattle illnesses and droughts. Discouraged, Deodati eventually gave up and his replacement would be Abraham Momber Van de Velde. The latter fared no better and eventually became the last Dutch governor of the island for that period. Thus the Dutch abandoned the island definitely in 1710.

Treatment of slaves
 

Slaves were not particularly well treated by the colonists and revolts or the act of organizing one was severely repressed and punished. Some punishments consisted of amputation of various parts of the body and exposure in the open air for a day as example to others, eventually culminating in condemned slaves’ execution at sunset.

Legacy of the Dutch
 

•Providing the name for the country and for many regions over the whole island. Some examples include the ‘Pieter Both’ mountain, the ‘Vandermeersh’ region near Rose-Hill as well as many other names.
•Introduction of sugar cane plants from Java
•Decimating the local dodo and giant tortoise population for food and by introducing competing species and pests, sometimes involuntarily.
•Clearing of large swaths of forests for Ebony bark exploitation
Abandoned by the Dutch, the island became a French colony when, in September 1715, Guillaume Dufresne D'Arsel landed and took possession of this port of call on the route to India. He named the island "Isle de France", but it was only in 1721 that the French started their occupation. However, it was only as from 1735, with the arrival of the most illustrious of French governor, Mahé de La Bourdonnais, that the "Isle de France" started developing effectively.

Mahé de La Bourdonnais established Port Louis as a naval base and a ship-building centre. Under his governorship, numerous buildings were built, a number of which are still standing today: part of Government House, the Chateau de Mon Plaisir at Pamplemousses and the Line Barracks. The island was under the administration of the French East India Company which maintained its presence until 1767.

From that year until 1810, the island was in charge of officials appointed by the French Government, except for a brief period during the French Revolution, when the inhabitants set up a government virtually independent of France.

During the Napoleonic wars, the "Isle de France" had become a base from which French corsairs organised successful raids on British commercial ships. The raids continued until 1810 when a strong British expedition was sent to capture the island. A preliminary attack was foiled at Grand Port in August 1810, but the main attack launched in December of the same year from Rodrigues, which had been captured a year earlier, was successful. The British landed in large numbers in the north of the island and rapidly overpowered the French, who capitulated. By the Treaty of Paris in 1814, the "Isle de France" which was renamed 'Mauritius' was ceded to Great Britain, together with Rodrigues and the Seychelles. In the act of capitulation, the British guaranteed that they would respect the language, the customs, the laws and the traditions of the inhabitants.

British rule (1810–1968)
 

Despite the only French naval victory (during the Napoleonic Wars) of Battle of the Grand Port on 19 and 20 August 1810 by the fleet commanded by Pierre Bouvet, Mauritius was captured on the 3 December 1810 by the British under Commodore Josias Rowley. Their possession of the island was confirmed four years later by the Treaty of Paris (1814). French institutions, including the Napoleonic code of law, were maintained. The French language was at that moment still used more widely than English.

The British administration, which began with Robert Farquhar as governor, was followed by rapid social and economic changes. One of the most important events was the abolition of slavery in 1835. The planters received a compensation of two million pounds sterling for the loss of their slaves which had been imported from Africa and Madagascar during the French occupation.

Mauritian Creoles trace their origins to the plantation owners and slaves who were brought to work the sugar fields. Indo-Mauritians are descended from Indian immigrants who arrived in the nineteenth century to the Aapravasi Ghat in order to work as indentured laborers after slavery was abolished in 1833. Included in the Indo-Mauritian community are Muslims (about 17% of the population) from the Indian subcontinent. The Franco-Mauritian elite controls nearly all of the large sugar estates and is active in business and banking. As the Indian population became numerically dominant and the voting franchise was extended, political power shifted from the Franco-Mauritians and their Creole allies to the Indo-Mauritians.

Conflicts arose between the Indian community (mostly sugarcane labourers) and the Franco-Mauritians in the 1920s, leading to several – mainly Indian – deaths. Following this the Mauritius Labour Party was founded in 1936 by Maurice Cure to safeguard the interest of the labourers. Cure was succeeded a year later by Emmanuel Anquetil who tried to gain the support of the port workers. After his death, Guy Rozemond took over the leadership of the party.

Indentured labour, the coolie trade and "coolitude"
 

When slavery was abolished in 1834, an attempt was made to secure a cheap source of adaptable labour for intensive sugar plantations in Mauritius. Indentured labour began with Chinese, Japanese, African and Malagasy labourers, but ultimately, it was India which was to supply the much needed coolies to Mauritius. This period of intensive use of Indian labour took place during British rule, with many brutal episodes and a long struggle for respect from the indentured. The island soon became the key-point in the coolie trade, as thousands of Indians set from Calcutta or Karikal to modify the social, political and economic physionomies of the island, but also beyond, till the West Indies.

The meeting of people from mosaic India, China, Africa and Europe began a process of hybridation and intercultural frictions and dialogues, which poet Khal Torabully has termed "coolitude".

Towards independence
 

Elections in 1947 for the newly created Legislative Assembly marked Mauritius' first steps toward self-rule and was won by the Labour Party, headed by Guy Rozemont. It was the first time the elite Francophones were ousted out of power. An independence campaign gained momentum after 1961, when the British agreed to permit additional self-government and eventual independence. A coalition composed of the Mauritian Labour Party (MLP), the Muslim Committee of Action (CAM) of Sir Abdool Razack Mohamed, and the Independent Forward Bloc (IFB) – a traditionalist Hindu party – won a majority in the 1967 Legislative Assembly election, despite opposition from Franco-Mauritian and Creole supporters of Gaetan Duval's and Jules Keoing's Mauritian Social Democratic Party (PMSD). The contest was interpreted locally as a referendum on independence. The election was won by a small margin. The constituency No. 15 was capital to the winning of the pro-independence coalition. The MLP led alliance was able to win this constituency only due to the support of the CAM, Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, MLP leader and chief minister in the colonial government, became the first prime minister after independence, on March 12, 1968. This event was preceded by a period of communal strife, brought under control with assistance from British troops.The communal strife that preceded independence lead to around 300 deaths.

From independence to the end of the twentieth century
 

The 1970s saw the emergence of the Mouvement Militant Mauricien/Parti Socialiste Mauricien (MMM/PSM) led by Paul Bérenger. The MMM was founded in 1970 and had three initial leaders, Paul Bérenger, Dev Virasawmy and Juneid Jeeroobarkhan. The MMM won its first election in a by election of constituency No.5 by electing Dev Virasawmy. Until 1982, Sir Seewoosagur was Prime Minister, his Labour Party in coalition with Duval's PMSD. In 1982, the coalition of Mouvement Militant Mauricien/Parti Socialiste Mauricien came to power in a landslide electoral victory, with Anerood Jugnauth as Prime Minister and Harish Boodhoo as the deputy Prime Minister. The coalition split in 1983, with Anerood Jugnauth forming the Mouvement Socialiste Mauricien (MSM), which became the governing party, with Jugnauth as Prime Minister. Sir Seewoosagur subsequently became Governor-General, although the MSM planned to make the country a republic within the Commonwealth, with him as President. An attempt to make the country a republic in 1990, with Bérenger as President failed, owing to political opposition.

Following Sir Seewoosagur's death, his son, Navin Ramgoolam succeeded him as leader of the MLP. However, the MLP and PMSD were defeated at the 1991 election, which saw Sir Anerood Jugnauth re-elected. On March 12, 1992 Mauritius finally became a republic within the Commonwealth, with Cassam Uteem as president.

Navin Ramgoolam formed a coalition with the MMM at the parliamentary elections in 1995, leaving the MSM in opposition.

Present day
 

At the next elections in 2001, Sir Anerood Jugnauth’s MSM, in coalition with Paul Bérenger’s MMM was returned to power, with Sir Anerood Jugnauth appointed as prime minister. He subsequently retired as Prime Minister after 3 years and assumed the office of President. For the remaining time of the elected government the Prime Minister’s post was filled by Paul Bérenger. At the 2005 general elections, the MLP led Alliance Sociale coalition won the elections and Navin Ramgoolam became Prime Minister. Sir Anerood Jugnauth remains at the presidency.

Abu el-Abbas el-Mursi Mosque from Alexandria, Egypt

The most important historic mosque in Alexandria, Egypt, as well as a very beautiful one, is considered to be that of Abu El Abbas El Mursi. Constructed in 1775 by Algerians, it was built over the tomb of the thirteenth century Murcia Andalusan saint, Ahmed Abu al-Abbas al-Mursi (Abu'l 'Abbas) who joined and then lead, as a devout Sufi, the Shadhali brotherhood. Abu El Abbas El Mursi is in himself a very interesting story.

His entire name was Sheikh Shehab El Din Abu El Abbas Ahmed Ibn Umar Ibn Mohamed Al Ansary El Mursi. He was born in Andalusia (an autonomous district of Spain, the capital of which is Seville) in 616 H (1219 AD) to a wealthy family in the trading business. He was therefore well educated, having been instructed in the Quran, Sunna and Shehab, and he grew up helping his father in the trading business. He was also known for his honesty and for his many contributions to the needy.

He left Spain with his family in 640 H (1242 AD) in the face of increasing Christian control over Spain. He was accompanied by his father, brother, and his mother. However, his parents did not make it to Tunisia, their destination. In Tunisia, Shehab heard about El Sheikh Abu El Hassan El Shazly and he accompanied him in his journey to Alexandria. Many Muslim scholars and religious people chose to live in Alexandria after the Christian began to dominate Spain. 

El Sheikh El Shazly was fond of Shehab and in return Abu al-Abbas became one of his best students. Abu al-Abbas married El Shazly’s daughter and had two daughters and a son from her. Shehab Abu El Abbas El Mursi lived 43 years in Alexandria as a Muslim teacher until he died in 686 H (1286 AD).

The site of the modern mosque has a long history. At first, it was only the tomb of Abu El Abbas El Mursi, which remains today on its original site. The tomb was placed in a small building near the eastern harbor of Alexandria.

In the year 1307 AD, El Sheikh Zein El Din Ibn El Qattan, one of the richest traders of Alexandria, visited the tomb. Reverent of the Muslim scholar, he ordered his men to build a mausoleum and a dome for the tomb. He also built a fine mosque with a small square minaret. He even funded an Iman for the small mosque. The tomb was placed under the dome to the right hand side of the entrance. The mosque became a place of pilgrimage for many Muslims from Egypt and Morocco who passes through Alexandria during their Hej journey to and from Mecca.

However, by 1477, the mosque was neglected and in bad need of repair. Therefore, when Gaqmas El Zahry, the ruler of Alexandria, visited it, he ordered that the mosque be renovated. At the same time, he built himself a tomb alongside that of Abu al-Abbas, where he also was buried after his death. Once again in 1596 AD, the mosque was renewed after a visit by Sheikh Abu al Abbas El Khurzemy, who also built himself a tomb in the complex. However, though the original structure does incorporate older elements, it was Sheikh Abu el Hassan El Maghreby who, after visiting the small mosque in 1775, ordered the building of the current one on this site.However, by 1477, the mosque was neglected and in bad need of repair. Therefore, when Gaqmas El Zahry, the ruler of Alexandria, visited it, he ordered that the mosque be renovated. At the same time, he built himself a tomb alongside that of Abu al-Abbas, where he also was buried after his death. Once again in 1596 AD, the mosque was renewed after a visit by Sheikh Abu al Abbas El Khurzemy, who also built himself a tomb in the complex. However, though the original structure does incorporate older elements, it was Sheikh Abu el Hassan El Maghreby who, after visiting the small mosque in 1775, ordered the building of the current one on this site. 

Nevertheless, by 1863, the current mosque was in a bad state once more, unfit for holding prayer services. Therefore, Ahmed El Kakhakhny, one of Alexandria's most famous builders, renewed the current mosque and afterwards, a number of the houses that were built up around the mosque were removed to make more space. Afterwards, Ali Mubarak, and educational leader in Egypt, described it as, "wide, strong, and fine looking and the practice of Islam is being done there in its best manner." By now, the mosque was operated under the Awqaf (Waqf), a governmental endowment for Islamic affairs, which provided Imans as well as caretakers. A mulid, or Islamic religious festival was also established to celebrate the birth of Abu El Abbas, which lasted eight days every year.

King Farouk, whose aim it was to build Cairo into the Paris on the Nile, also sought to make Alexandria the Jewel of the Mediterranean. There, he built a wide square known as "Midan el Masaged", or the "Square of Mosque" covering some 43,200 square meters. The Mosque of Abu el Abbas el Mursi was the focal point and center of this square, and it is surrounded by five other mosques, among which is that of al-Busiri and Yaqut al- 'Arshi. As part of this building program, the mosque was once again rebuilt by the government in the beautiful Arabian style that was popular during the Ayyubid Period, the time when Abu El Abbas El Mursi first came to Alexandria from Spain. They also paid special attention to the mausoleum of the saint during these renovations, leaving it in its original position.

This was a major rebuilding of the mosque. The walls of the mosque stand 23 meters high and dressed in artificial stone, while the minaret, situated on the southern side, rises to 73 meters. It has an Ayoubids design, with four sections. The first section is about 15 meters high and square in shape. The second one is four meters high with eight sides. The third level is about 15 high with sixteen sides, while the uppermost level is 3.25 meters high with a circular shape. The top of the minaret is covered with brass and and has an Islamic moon finale.

The mosque has two main entrances. The one on the north overlooks the square and faces the street leading to the Royal Palace of Ras at-tin. The eastern door also overlooks the square. The stairs of the entrances are made of Egyptian granite.

The main part of the mosque, internally, is an octagon, with sides measuring 22 meters. The internal walls are also dressed in artificial stone, though there is a mosaic dada 5.60 meters high. The entire area of the mosque is 3000 square meters. The ceiling, supported by sixteen columns made of Italian granite which in turn support arches, soars 17.20 overhead. The ceilings are decorated with arabesque.

The columns are solid, or monolithic, including their capital and base. They are octagonal in shape, measuring .85 meters in diameter and 8.60 meters in height. In the center of the ceiling is an elevated skylight with eight sides, known as a Shokhsheikha, that is 24 meters above floor level and 51 meters side. Each side of the skylight actually has three windows of colored glass in arabesque designs, set into aluminum frames. This skylight is surrounded by four domes, placed over the four mausoleums within the complex. The domes have an inner and outer layer. The inner one forming the ceiling stand 22 meters high, and are 5 meters in diameter. The upper domes measure 7.5 meters in diameter and stand 11 meters above the lower domes. The floors are paved in white marble.

The doors, minbar and windows are made of joined and finely carved teak, citronia and walnut. The minbar is 6.35 meters high, capped by a dome, and has verses of Quran written at the top in French gold. The mihrab of the mosque, located in the Qibla wall, stands at the base of the mosque's minaret. It is flanked by two columns of Egyptian granite measuring three meters in height. At the end of each column, the name of Mohamed is written in the Kufic style of Arabic writing. The main rule in Islam, ”There is no god except Allah and Mohamed is the prophet of Allah,” is written twice, also flanking the mihrab.

The mayda, an absolution area, along with the lavatories, are arranged on the western side of the mosque with their own entrance that overlooks the square.

According to a Royal desire, the necessary alterations were made to reserve special quarters for women, with a private entrance, in order that they can perform their religious rites. The Ministry of Waqfs completed the construction of the mosque at the beginning of 1943 at a total cost of about 140,000 LE. It would seem that this amount of funds paid for a very exquisitely beautiful monument that stands as a lasting memory to Alexandria's most beloved Muslim saint.

Traveling in Egypt - short advices

CULTURE

Egypt is a Middle Eastern country and has Middle Eastern customs. Whether Muslim or Copt, the Egyptians are deeply religious and religious principles govern their daily lives. Combined with religious belief is commitment to the extended family. Each family member is responsible for the integrity of the family and for the behavior of other members, creating an environment that would be envied by many people in the West. Certainly, the result is that the city of Cairo is much safer than any western metropolis.

Yet when westerners visit Egypt they are often apprehensive. Their views of Egyptians and Arabs, fomented by unkind and untrue media stories, often bear no relation to reality. Travelers are often surprised by their friendly, hospitable reception and take home with them good feelings about Egypt and its population.

Egyptians have been raised in a social environment steeped in Islam, a background that can color their decision-making in a way difficult for foreigners to understand. Yet it is precisely this training that makes Egyptians some of the most charming and helpful of hosts. By understanding the culture and with consideration for your hosts, you can be a welcome guest in Egypt.

RELIGIOUS LIMITS

Devout Muslims do not drink alcohol though most do not object to others imbibing in reasonable amounts. If in doubt, ask. In addition to the prohibition on alcohol, the faithful do not use drugs or eat pork, which is considered unclean. Explicit sexual material--magazines, photos, tapes, or records--is illegal and subject to confiscation.

Keep in mind that proselytizing is illegal in Egypt. Foreigners actively working to convert Egyptians have been asked to leave. Remember, almost all the Egyptians are either conservative devoted Muslims or Copts.

Moral Codes

In Egypt there are hardly any restrictions on foreign women. Ticket lines, for example, are occasionally segregated. Women should line up with other women (especially since the lines are usually shorter). On buses, the driver may want you to be seated in the front with other women. On the metro lines, the first car is usually reserved for women.

For men, speaking to an unknown Egyptian woman is a breach of etiquette. Take care in any liaisons you form because some families still follow ancient traditions.

SOCIAL MORES

In general, Egyptians are most accommodating and they will go out of their way to help you and respond to any questions you have. Most Egyptians require little personal space and will stand within inches of you to talk. You will find that whenever you start talking with an Egyptian, you will inevitably draw a crowd, and often the Egyptians will start discussing among themselves over the correct answer to a question.

Invitations

Egyptians, if offered anything, will refuse the first invitation which is customary. Therefore (unless you're dealing with Egyptians used to Western frankness) you should do the same. If the offer is from the heart and not just politeness, it will be repeated. If you're invited into a home, especially in small villages, and have to refuse, the householder will often press for a promise from you to visit in the future, usually for a meal. If you make such a promise, keep it, for having foreign guests is often considered a social coup. If you fail to arrive, your would-be host will be humiliated. To repay invitations, you may host a dinner in a restaurant, a common practice.

Baksheesh

Please do not offer tips to professionals, businessmen, or others who would consider themselves your equals. You may seriously offend them by your act.

Women

Before the famous Egyptian feminist Hoda Shaarawi deliberately removed hers in 1922, the veil was worn in public by all respectable middle-class and upper-class women, Muslim, Jew, or Christian. By 1935, however, veils were a comparative rarity in Egypt, though they continued to be worn as an item of fashion in neighboring countries like Syria and Jordan for 30 more years and have remained obligatory in the Arabian Peninsula to this day.

Nowadays in Egypt, most of the Muslim women still wear the veil demonstrating either modesty or Muslim piety. One reason this is favored by many young professional women, is that it tends to discourage male advances, physical or verbal.

From the 1930s onwards, Egyptian women began to enter into business and the professions. Thus by 1965, thanks in part to social changes affected in the course of the July Revolution, Egypt could boast a far higher proportion of women working as doctors, dentists, lawyers, professors, diplomats, or high officials than might have been found in the US or in any European country outside of Scandinavia.

Women Traveling Alone

In Egypt, before the revolution, a woman traveling alone was generally safe, but she could be noticed, less in large cities than in the country. 

These days, it is better to come in a touristic group or if it is a must to travel alone in Egypt, make sure that you have everything settled there: from hotel booking, to driver to pick you up from the airport, and if it is possible, even someone you know and you trust, to wait you there (this is for your safety due to the criminals that are still out there free after they were released from prisons). However, if problems do occur, seek help from the police or any shop nearby.

Although you probably will never be accosted, take simple precautions as you would anywhere: don't walk in deserted areas alone or in empty dark streets, don't go in neighborhoods you don't know and sure, avoid to take taxi's from the street (if you are in Cairo always take the white taxi - that is the safest one and the honest one - who counts your real road and the right amount to pay for it). 

Although most invitations are innocent, don't accept them from strangers and don't enter in conversations with them.

VISITOR RESPONSIBILITIES

Visiting Mosques

Major tourism mosques are open to the public unless services are in progress (the main service is on Friday at noon). Other mosques are not. Keep in mind that a mosque differs from a western church in that Christian churches are considered houses of God, while mosques are more a gathering place for the faithful of Islam. Unless otherwise posted, tickets to some that have been restored are sold by the caretaker for about LE3-6. All visitors to mosques, mausoleums, and madrasas must remove their shoes. Most Muslims walk around in their stockings but those mosques that are major tourist attractions have canvas overshoes available; a tip of 50PT to LE1 is in order for the people who put them on for you. Women must cover bare arms and should also have a hat or a head scarf (remember, on a visit in Egypt in 1992, Princess Diana of Wales was covering her hair and let out her shoes before she enters in el Azhar from Cairo). 

Princess Diana of Wales in el Azhar - May 12, 1992

The Mosque at the Citadel offers the canvas overshoes for 5 LE or one dollar.

Crime and Drugs

Crime in Egypt was before revolution nearly nonexistent, and violence was usually limited to family feuds. After the revolution, things are still healing in Egypt, but from my own experience, I'm telling you that if you follow all the steps from above, you have nothing to be afraid off. However, in tourism areas some pickpockets and petty thieves may exists, so be careful and remember that the ever helpful tourism police are usually nearby. Women must be cautious, especially in out-lying areas. Stay completely away from drugs and leave yours at home.